Adaptation of plants to extreme temperatures

Adaptation of plants to physical and physiological drought

Aid: types, sources, impacts, evaluation

Arid climates: distribution, characteristics, causes

Biomass productivity: limited biodiversity, limited nutrient cycling

Capture, management, use, disposal, reuse of water

Causes of residential zonation: income, supply of housing, ethnicity, planning, cultural and historical factors

Causes of urban growth: social, economic, political, historical

Changes and challenges: population pressure, desertification, climate change, management

Changes and challenges: population pressure, exploitation, climate change, management strategies

Changing demands for water from human activities: agriculture

Characteristics of arid soils: solonetz, solonchaks

Characteristics of different residential areas

Cholera as an example of a bacterial disease

Cities experiencing different types of urban growth: urbanisation, suburbanisation, urban sprawl, counter urbanisation, re-urbanisation, urban renewal and regeneration

Climates: distribution, characteristics, reasons for distribution

Coastal landforms: erosional and depositional features, vegetation-related systems

Coastal processes: influencing factors, marine erosion, sub-aerial processes, transportation and deposition

Consequences of urban growth for urban areas and rural areas (environmental, social, economic, political)

Conservation and sustainability: approaches, strategies, examples

Controls of disease: vaccines, education, sanitation infrastructure, low-tech solutions (mosquito nets, face masks)

Coral reefs: distribution, conditions, threats, management

Critical evaluation of a global programme to eradicate one pathogenic disease (any disease may be chosen): with reference to environmental, social, economic or political reasons for potential re-emergence

Detailed specific example of the strategies used by one country to prevent and control cholera

Detailed specific example of the strategies used by one country to prevent and control influenza (flu)

Detailed specific example of the strategies used by one country to prevent and control malaria

Detailed specific examples of two contrasting countries’ responses to one pandemic since 2000

Development of plant communities: climatic climax, subclimax and plagioclimax

Disease management: strategies, evaluation

Disease: types, causes, distribution, impacts

Distinctive soil forming processes

Earthquake and volcanic hazards: distribution, processes, impacts, management

Earthquake hazards and impacts

Energy budgets: systems, global and seasonal variations, transfers, diurnal changes

Environmental degradation: causes, impacts, management

Explosive and effusive eruptions and their main hazards: lava flows, tephra and ash falls, volcanic mudflows/lahars, volcanic landslides, pyroclastic flows (nuées ardentes), jökulhlaups, toxic gases

Factors (environmental, social, economic, political) influencing effective responses

Factors (population change, cost of land, transport provision, competition for space, investment, local and national planning) causing changes in the characteristics and location of: central business district (CBD), retail, manufacturing, services, r

Factors affecting severity of earthquakes: – focus and epicentre

Factors influencing an effective response to disease outbreaks: environmental, social, economic, political

Factors influencing water resources: supply, demand, security

Factors that influence effective disease monitoring: cost-effective testing, access and scalability of testing technology, access to patients, data accuracy, disclosure and patient confidentiality, international relations (collaboration)

Factors which influence the structure and characteristics of urban areas

Future climate: projections, impacts on environments, tipping points

Gersmehl diagrams, soil fertility, energy flows and trophic levels

Global distribution and spatial and time variation of influenza (flu)

Global distribution and spatial variation of cholera

Global distribution and spatial variation of malaria and spread due to changing environmental conditions

Global distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes and related tectonic processes and plate boundaries

Global pattern of water resources

Global population: distribution, density, growth trends, components of change

Global trade: patterns, impacts, case studies

Global warming and climate change: evidence, causes, greenhouse gases, physical and human factors

Global water resources: patterns, human water cycle, trends in consumption

Governance: global agreements, mitigation and adaptation strategies, case studies

Growth in population and area: globally and at city level

Health care: access, inequality, case studies

Horizontal versus vertical urban structures and urban land-use zones

Impact of climate and human activities

Impact of climate, vegetation and human activities

Impacts on people and the environment: short-term impacts and long-term impacts

Influenza (flu) as an example of a viral disease

Magnitude and magnitude scales: Richter, Modified Mercalli and Moment Magnitude

Main hazards: ground-shaking, liquefaction, landslides, tsunami, aftershocks

Malaria as an example of a parasitic disease spread by a vector (mosquito)

Management of earthquake and volcanic hazards

Management of water resources: increasing supply, managing demand, challenges, detailed examples

Mass movement hazards and impacts: types, causes, management strategies and examples

Migration: types, causes, impacts, detailed examples

Modification to the water cycle: agriculture, deforestation and afforestation, urbanisation, industrialisation, water abstraction, flood management

Monitoring disease to manage public health emergencies

Multi-hazard environments: causes, impacts, management

Physical and human challenges: issues, strategies, evaluation

Physical factors and human factors of vulnerability to earthquake hazards and impacts: significance of time of day, distance from epicentre, population density, infrastructure, economic development

Physical factors and human factors of vulnerability to volcanic hazards and impacts: speed, size, frequency, extent of the eruption, population density, infrastructure, economic development

Plate tectonics: types of plates, movement, evidence, plate boundaries

Pollution: types, sources, impacts, management

Population structure: components, changes, demographic transition model, youthful and ageing populations, policies

Prediction techniques and their reliability, precursor events (warning signs) and warning times

Prevalence and risk factors of cholera

Prevalence and risk factors of influenza (flu)

Prevalence and risk factors of malaria

Primate cities: causes and consequences for countries

Processes and landforms: weathering, granite and limestone landforms

Processes and landforms: weathering, wind and water processes, landforms

Processes involved in volcano formation

Processes of urban growth

Rate of change may vary in different cities depending on the location, economic classification and influences on change

Responses to disease outbreaks

Risks associated with new human strains of influenza (flu), including potential of new variants from animal populations

River channel processes and landforms: erosion, transport, deposition, flow patterns, landform formation

River flood hazards and impacts: causes, impacts, management strategies and specific examples

Similarities and differences in responses to the pandemic

Social and economic impacts of cholera

Social and economic impacts of influenza (flu)

Social and economic impacts of malaria

Socio-economic impacts: vulnerability, global patterns, most vulnerable groups

Soil types and profile characteristics: oxisols/latosols, tropical red and brown earths

Sustainable urban development: challenges, issues, strategies, examples

Tectonic processes and landforms: processes and resulting landforms

The concept of a hierarchy of urban areas in a country

The concept of perception of risk

The concept of place identity and perception of place

The drainage basin system: concept, movement of water, characteristics, discharge relationships and hydrographs

The potential risks of cholera spread following disaster events

The role of factors (physical, social, economic, political, historical) in creating distinct structures and patterns of land use

Tourism: patterns, impacts, management

Transmission, threat to populations and distribution: how cholera is transmitted and factors influencing its spread

Transmission, threat to populations and distribution: how influenza (flu) is transmitted and factors influencing its spread

Transmission, threat to populations and distribution: how malaria is transmitted and factors influencing its spread

Tropical cyclone hazards: distribution, processes, impacts, management

Types of seismic waves: P-waves and S-waves, Love waves and Rayleigh waves

Types of volcano: strato-volcano (composite cone), shield volcano, cinder cone, lava dome, fissure eruptions

Types of water resources: rivers, lakes and reservoirs, oceans, underground water, ice sheets, precipitation, recycled

Urban growth: processes, causes, consequences, hierarchy, primate and world cities

Urban structure and change: factors, changing location of activities, residential zonation

Vegetation and soils: characteristics, adaptations, human impacts

Vegetation characteristics in hot arid and hot semi-arid environments

Vegetation characteristics of rainforest ecosystems and savanna ecosystems

Vegetation, soils and ecosystems: characteristics, nutrient cycling

Volcanic explosivity index (VEI)

Volcanic hazards and impacts

Water consumption linked to economic development

Water stress and water scarcity (physical and economic)

Weather processes and phenomena: moisture processes, causes and types of precipitation

Wildfire hazards: distribution, causes, impacts, management

World cities: categories and causes